Zoning Reform 2025: Parking-Minimums Axed and FAR Caps Raised in Major U.S. Cities

The Nationwide Push to Eliminate Parking Minimums

Cities across the United States are eliminating mandatory parking minimums, ending decades-old rules that forced new developments to include a set number of off-street parking spaces. This movement began in earnest when Buffalo, NY became the first major city to abolish parking requirements in 2017. Since then, dozens of cities – from Minneapolis to San Diego – have followed suit. The momentum has even reached state legislatures: in 2023, California banned parking mandates near transit statewide, and in 2024 Washington State passed the nation’s strongest rollback of parking minimums, capping most residential projects at 0.5 spaces per unit and exempting many altogether.

Why are parking minimums being dropped? Research shows these rules drive up housing costs (each structured parking spot can cost $25,000–$50,000 to build) and consume valuable land that could be homes or businesses. Removing parking mandates lets developers “right-size” parking based on market demand. It cuts construction costs, streamlines approvals, and frees up space for additional units or amenities. Cities also see it as a strategy to promote walkability, transit use, and lower carbon emissions. Importantly, ending mandates does not ban parking – developers can still build parking, but they decide how much, rather than a one-size-fits-all zoning rule.

Floor Area Ratio (FAR) Relaxations and Upzoning for Density

Parallel to parking reform, many cities are updating zoning to allow taller, denser development by raising or removing FAR limits. Floor Area Ratio caps – which limit building floor area relative to lot size – have historically constrained urban density. Now, in an effort to spur housing and commercial growth, cities are relaxing FAR restrictions and embracing “upzoning” (allowing higher-density buildings). For example, New York City in 2024 removed a state-imposed 12.0 FAR cap on residential buildings. The city can now map new high-density districts up to 15.0 and 18.0 FAR for housing – a monumental change unlocking taller residential towers.

Elsewhere, cities like San Diego and Los Angeles are adopting incentive programs that effectively boost allowable FAR. San Diego’s “Complete Communities” initiative grants qualifying infill projects an FAR of 8.0 or even unlimited FAR if they include affordable housing, far above previous zoning limits. Los Angeles’ newly adopted downtown plan uses a base-and-bonus system where developers can exceed normal FAR in exchange for public benefits (affordable units, open space, etc.). Seattle, Denver, and others are updating neighborhood plans to permit multi-story apartments on what were once single-family lots, effectively relaxing density controls. These upzoning measures expand building envelopes and allowable heights, paving the way for new mid-rise and high-rise construction in more parts of the city.

Developers and investors are taking note because more generous FAR allowances mean more leasable or sellable floor space on the same land. Combined with the removal of parking mandates, this significantly improves project feasibility and returns. Higher density boosts the income potential of a site, which in turn raises land values – a double-edged sword that rewards early investors but can increase acquisition costs over time. Still, in many cities the effective land value per buildable square foot may drop as FAR limits are raised, creating opportunities to profit by building more intensely on underutilized sites.

Design and Architectural Implications of the Reforms

Freed from parking minimums and low-density zoning, architects and developers are exploring new design typologies and site plans. One notable example is Houston’s emerging “courtyard style” developments: clusters of 3–8 homes around a shared garden, with no off-street parking lot on site. This housing type was infeasible under old rules that required driveways and parking, but Houston’s recent code revisions now permit it, vastly increasing units per acre in some neighborhoods. In cities like Minneapolis and Portland, which have legalized duplexes, triplexes, or fourplexes on lots once limited to one house, we are seeing gentle density infill – classic single-family homes giving way to modern townhouses and small apartment buildings that blend into residential blocks. These projects maintain neighborhood scale while adding housing supply.

Removing parking requirements also unlocks creative reuse of space. Developers can convert ground floors or entire structures that would have been parking garages into retail, offices, or additional residences. In New York City, for instance, the 2024 reforms eliminate parking mandates in many areas (including Manhattan and transit-rich parts of Brooklyn/Queens). This means new mixed-use buildings can devote the street level to active uses instead of car storage. Even existing buildings might repurpose parking garages into gyms, shops, or more apartments. In San Francisco – which axed parking minimums citywide and even imposed parking maximums – architects are designing slimmer residential towers and mid-rises without podium parking, giving cities more human-scaled streetscapes. Overall, these reforms allow more flexible building footprints and facades: we see designs with larger front yards or plazas (since fewer surface lots are needed), and innovative massing as height limits rise. From an urban design perspective, higher FAR and no parking mandate encourage transit-oriented development, walkable block patterns, and more vibrant public realms.

Economic Impact: Lower Barriers, Higher Yields

For real estate investors and developers, the economic calculus of projects is being transformed. Relaxing parking and density rules reduces construction costs and barriers to entry, particularly for infill projects on tight sites. Small developers benefit because providing structured parking on a small urban lot was often prohibitively expensive – now they can build “parking-lite” projects that pencil out. A recent City of Austin analysis projected that requiring one additional parking space per apartment could raise monthly rent by up to $200; thus, removing that requirement can improve affordability while preserving developer profit margins. In Dallas, officials noted that excessive parking mandates made many infill developments infeasible; the city’s 2025 removal of parking minimums for most small and mid-sized projects is expected to “lower barriers to entry for small developers” and diversify housing stock.

Land values are reacting to these policy shifts. Where FAR increases significantly (e.g. New York’s newly upzoned districts or San Diego’s transit area incentives), the potential to build more rentable area tends to bid up land prices. However, because developers can now build more units, the yield on cost can remain attractive – especially if demand is strong for the new housing or commercial space. In some cities, upzoning has been a catalyst for outside investment: neighborhoods once overlooked due to restrictive zoning are suddenly on developers’ radar. For example, Minneapolis’s elimination of single-family zoning and parking minimums citywide in 2018–2021 signaled that the city is open for more growth. This drew interest from investors looking to assemble and redevelop underused lots into triplexes and small apartment buildings. Similarly, Phoenix’s recent easing of parking ratios for multifamily and transit-corridor projects (2024) is expected to improve financial feasibility for new apartments in a city long dominated by car-oriented garden complexes. Early evidence from Seattle and London shows that when parking mandates disappear, many developers choose to provide fewer spaces – sometimes zero – which indicates that those projects were viable only once freed from the extra cost burden.

Of course, these reforms also shift certain costs. With less on-site parking, the value of curbside space for loading, rideshare, and street parking rises, and cities are responding by managing curb demand (e.g. through parking benefit districts, higher permit fees, etc.). But on the whole, the consensus is that cutting parking minimums and upzoning are net positives for urban investment: they increase development capacity, speed up approval timelines (fewer variances needed), and align zoning with market demand. As the CEO of a major real estate firm put it, “We can build more housing and retain profitability now that we’re not wasting $30,000 per empty parking stall”.

Policy Tracking: How to Stay Updated

The landscape of local zoning laws is rapidly changing. Investors and developers can monitor the status of these reforms via several resources. The Parking Reform Network maintains an interactive Parking Mandates Map documenting cities that have reduced or eliminated parking requirements (over 200 places and counting, with details on each ordinance’s status). For tracking broader zoning changes – like upzoning and land use reforms – UC Berkeley’s Zoning Reform Tracker is a valuable database covering municipal efforts nationwide, updated through 2025. Many city governments also publish “dashboard” websites for their ongoing zoning initiatives. For example, Seattle’s Office of Planning provides maps of proposed zoning changes under its 2024 Comprehensive Plan update, and New York City’s planning portal lists the timeline for implementing its City of Yes zoning text amendments. Keeping an eye on state legislation is also crucial, as new state laws (like those in California, Oregon, Colorado, and Washington) can swiftly override local zoning to allow greater density or remove parking mandates.

Below is a watchlist of 30 major U.S. cities and their current or pending zoning reforms regarding parking minima and FAR/density rules. This comparison highlights where opportunities are emerging for developers and which reform packages are most ambitious:

Zoning Reform Watchlist: 30 Large Cities and Their Pending Changes

City	Parking Minimum Reforms	FAR / Density Reforms	Status (2024–2025)
New York, NY	Proposed elimination of parking requirements citywide for new housing (already removed in core Manhattan).	State lifted 12.0 FAR cap; NYC adding new high-density residential zones (15–18 FAR).	PASSED/Pending: Citywide zoning amendment approved Dec 2024; mapping of new high-FAR districts upcoming.
Los Angeles, CA	No parking minimums in downtown and near transit per state law (AB 2097); L.A.’s Downtown Plan removed parking mandates for new development.	Downtown Community Plan (DTLA 2040) upzoned core, with base+bonus FAR (higher FAR by-right with affordable housing); citywide, California’s SB 9 and ADU laws allow more units on small lots.	ENACTED: Downtown plan adopted 2023; citywide transit-area upzoning proposals in discussion (Hollywood plan, etc.).
Chicago, IL	Eliminated parking minimums downtown and in transit-rich zones; expanded TOD areas citywide (2015, 2019 reforms). Further citywide reduction pending as housing plan evolves.	Incentive-based upzoning: Downtown FAR bonus program in place; 2022 Affordable Housing Overlay increased allowable FAR/height for projects with affordability. Considering citywide rezoning for more ADUs and 2–4 unit buildings.	ONGOING: Previous reforms implemented; new Mayor’s administration (2024) studying citywide zoning changes for housing (no major overhaul passed yet).
Houston, TX	“Market-Based Parking” in select areas since 2019 (no minimums in parts of Midtown, Downtown). Broader reforms in 2023–24 to remove parking minimums near transit and for ADU.	No traditional zoning, but 2023 Livable Places ordinance enables higher density: small lots, courtyard developments, multiplexes (3–8 units) now allowed by right with reduced lot size and setback rules.	ENACTED: Missing-middle housing code passed Sept 2023; parking reforms proposed on separate track. (City Council vote expected 2024).
Phoenix, AZ	Reduced parking ratios for multifamily: now 1.5 spaces/unit (was higher for 2-3BR) and as low as 0.75 per unit in walkable transit districts. Not eliminated, but significant cut in 2024.	Exploring higher-density along transit corridors. AZ state bills to preempt local zoning (to allow more apartments) were introduced in 2023 but did not pass. Phoenix’s general plan supports mid-rise infill; some downtown height limits relaxed.	ENACTED: City Council approved parking text amendment Jan 2024; PENDING: No major upzone yet (state-level efforts stalled, likely revisited in 2025).
Philadelphia, PA	Removed parking minimums for residential development in Center City and transit-accessible commercial districts (CMX-4/5 zones). Further proposals in 2023 to eliminate requirements in more zones.	Incremental upzoning: 2022 zoning updates allowed more units on larger rowhouse lots and relaxed height limits near transit. Considering duplex/triplex allowances citywide.	PARTIALLY ENACTED: Downtown/transit area parking requirements lifted in 2022; broader reforms pending (new Mayor in 2024 signaled support for citywide housing density plan).
San Antonio, TX	Eliminated parking minimums in Transit-Oriented and Mixed-Use districts (recent zoning changes). Still required elsewhere, but city encouraging reductions.	Updating downtown plan to allow higher-density mixed-use towers around the River Walk; incentives for affordable housing (FAR bonuses) under consideration. No citywide FAR cap (height governed by area).	ENACTED (partial): Transit area parking reforms adopted (~2021); downtown upzoning proposals ongoing (2024 center-city redevelopment strategy).
San Diego, CA	Abolished parking minimums for new residential near transit stops (2019). In 2021, removed parking mandates for commercial uses in Transit Priority Areas. Essentially, much of urban San Diego now has no minimum parking requirement.	Complete Communities program (2020) allows greatly increased FAR (Tier 4 up to unlimited FAR) for projects with 40% affordable units. Height limits still apply in some zones, but 2023 update expanded high-FAR zones by 688 acres. Plus, bonus ADU program allows multiple ADUs per lot (no FAR limit on ADUs).	ENACTED: Parking reforms phased in 2019–2022; Complete Communities in effect since 2020 (expanded Feb 2023). San Diego is actively issuing permits under these new rules (hundreds of projects approved).
Dallas, TX	NEW (2025): City Council voted 14–1 to eliminate parking minimums for almost all uses citywide. No parking required for residential <200 units, small restaurants (<2,500 sqft), offices, etc. Only large projects or those in car-dependent areas may still have modest requirements.	FAR generally not a limiting factor in Dallas (height and lot coverage govern density). However, the city is updating its comprehensive plan and may create “growth areas” with taller buildings by-right. Already, downtown Dallas has no density cap; uptown and transit node rezoning is in progress to allow mid-rise apartments.	ENACTED: Major parking reform ordinance passed May 2025. Pending: 2024–25 Neighborhood Plan updates to increase allowed heights near DART transit stations (to be decided by City Council).
San Jose, CA	Eliminated all parking minimums citywide in 2022 – at the time, the largest U.S. city to do so. Developers now decide how much parking to provide (and must include bicycle parking).	New General Plan (Envision 2040) designates urban villages for high density. San Jose also adopted a form-based code in some areas allowing taller buildings. With parking mandates gone, previously underutilized FAR in downtown and transit zones can now be fully used. Expect more mid- and high-rise mixed-use in growth areas.	IMPLEMENTED: Parking requirements removed Dec 2022. Zoning changes to map higher densities in urban villages are ongoing (San Jose plans to upzone several transit corridors by 2025 to meet state housing targets).
Austin, TX	In 2023, Austin became the largest U.S. city to abolish parking minimums citywide, for all uses. (Only ADA-accessible parking still required by law.) This followed years of gradual reductions.	Austin’s attempt at a full land development code rewrite (which would upzone much of the city) has been tied up in courts. However, the city is using planned unit developments and state density bonus laws to allow taller buildings for affordable housing. Also, Texas law (HB 2127 in 2023) may soon preempt some local zoning—worth watching.	ENACTED: Parking mandate repeal passed in Oct 2023. Stalled: Comprehensive upzoning remains in legal limbo; interim measures in place to encourage density (e.g. relaxed ADU rules, affordable housing bonuses).
Fort Worth, TX	No major reforms yet. Fort Worth still requires off-street parking for most developments, although reductions/exceptions are allowed for its urban districts. The city is observing Dallas and Austin as potential models.	Fort Worth’s new housing strategic plan calls for denser development along transportation corridors, but zoning hasn’t been updated yet. Any FAR or height increases would come through specific district plans.	WATCH: As of 2025, Fort Worth retains traditional parking minimums. The city has initiated a zoning modernization study – investors should monitor if parking reforms or upzoning are recommended in late 2025.
Columbus, OH	Removed minimum parking requirements in the Downtown district and near transit stops. The city’s 2019 code update also reduced parking minimums 50% in certain mixed-use zones. Further removal citywide is being considered (Columbus was actually the birthplace of parking mandates in 1923, and now aims to move away from them).	Columbus is overhauling its zoning code for the first time in 70 years. Proposed changes (2023) would allow duplexes and triplexes in residential zones and increase by-right heights in select corridors. No explicit FAR limits in most zones (height and units/acre used instead), but those density controls are set to loosen.	PENDING: Zoning code rewrite in progress (public draft released, adoption expected 2025). Parking reforms likely included, following downtown success. Some upzoning pilots enacted (e.g. along High Street). Investors should anticipate a more flexible code by 2025, aligning with Columbus’s rapid growth.
Charlotte, NC	Adopted a new Unified Development Ordinance (UDO) in 2022. It significantly reduced or removed parking minimums in many districts, especially near transit. For example, transit-oriented zones in Charlotte now have zero parking required. In other mixed-use areas, minimums were lowered to encourage walkable development.	The UDO also ended single-family exclusive zoning – now duplexes and triplexes are allowed on most residential lots, effectively increasing permitted density. Charlotte is permitting mid-rise apartments in more areas (with height transitions). While Charlotte still uses height limits, the UDO provides bonuses for affordable housing that raise allowable FAR/height.	ENACTED: UDO took effect June 2023. Developers are actively utilizing the new flexibility (e.g. building duplexes on former single-house lots). Additional transit corridor upzoning is expected as the city expands its light rail – these are under study.
San Francisco, CA	Eliminated all parking minimums citywide in 2018; no new development is required to provide parking. SF also imposes parking maximums in many areas (e.g. max 0.5–1.5 spaces/unit). This has shifted development toward transit-first designs.	San Francisco’s zoning already allows high densities in many areas (downtown can exceed 18 FAR for commercial). The city’s 2022 Housing Element calls for upzoning select residential districts and commercial corridors for taller housing. In 2023, SF relaxed some small-scale density limits (allowing fourplexes on large lots). Larger upzoning proposals (to allow mid-rise in westside neighborhoods) are under debate.	ENACTED: Parking reform in force since 2018. Ongoing upzoning: modest changes passed (fourplexes allowed 2023); broader rezoning pending political approval. Given state pressure (RHNA targets), SF is likely to rezone more areas by 2025.
Minneapolis, MN	Pioneered parking reform by eliminating parking minimums citywide in 2021 as part of the Minneapolis 2040 plan. Developers now face no minimum parking mandates for any use, making Minneapolis a model of parking freedom.	The Minneapolis 2040 plan upzoned the city: every neighborhood lot can have up to 3 dwelling units by right (ending single-family zoning). It also increased allowable building heights on transit corridors (up to 4–6 stories in many areas). FAR limits were adjusted upward accordingly. However, a court ruling paused full implementation pending an environmental review – the city is addressing that and moving forward.	ENACTED (in part): Most 2040 zoning policies, including no parking reqs and triplex allowances, took effect by 2021. Update: Plan was briefly halted by litigation in 2022–23, but a settlement in 2023 allows it to continue with some environmental conditions. Minneapolis remains a top example of pro-housing zoning reform, opening up new infill investment opportunities.
Seattle, WA	Significant reductions but not a full ban (yet). Seattle removed parking minimums in its Urban Centers and for areas within frequent transit service (2018 reform). Many new apartments in transit-rich neighborhoods now provide no parking by choice. In 2025, Washington State’s new law will mandate no more than 0.5 spaces/unit for most Seattle developments and prohibit parking requirements for homes <1,200 sq ft – effectively eliminating parking minimums for the majority of projects.	Seattle undertook major upzoning in 2019 with its Mandatory Housing Affordability (MHA) program – increasing height/FAR in most multifamily zones by ~1 story in exchange for affordable units. Currently, Seattle is updating its comprehensive plan (One Seattle 2024), with alternatives that could allow fourplexes citywide and taller buildings near frequent transit. The state’s 2023 law (HB 1110) already requires Seattle to allow at least 4 units per lot in all residential zones by mid-2025.	ENACTED: Parking minimums largely gone in practice (and state law will formalize that by 2025). Upzoning: Completed (2019) for many areas under MHA; Pending (2024) comprehensive plan will likely re-zone single-family areas for multi-unit housing. Developers should watch for the draft plan in late 2024, which could unlock substantial new capacity in this high-demand market.
Denver, CO	No blanket elimination yet. Denver has removed or lowered parking requirements in downtown, and in 2021 it cut parking minimums by 50% for affordable housing projects citywide. The Colorado legislature then passed HB 1304 in 2024, which eliminates many residential parking mandates statewide, especially near transit. This new law will force changes in Denver’s code, likely scrapping parking minimums for most new housing near bus/train lines.	Denver’s 2010 zoning code already encourages mixed-use and has form-based standards. The city adopted Expanding Housing Affordability policies in 2022 that give height/FAR bonuses for projects with affordable units. Also, Colorado’s 2023 land use package (along with HB 1304) aimed to allow mid-density housing in cities, but not all passed. Expect Denver to comply with any state upzoning mandates in 2024–25 and potentially rezone areas for transit-oriented density (e.g. along Colfax Ave).	ENACTED: Targeted parking reductions in effect; NEW state law (2024) will override many remaining local requirements. PENDING: Denver is evaluating zoning changes to allow more “missing middle” housing (duplexes, fourplexes) – the Mayor convened a task force in 2023. Savvy investors anticipate Denver’s zoning will liberalize further, aligning with its fast growth and transit investments.
Washington, DC	DC eliminated parking minimums in downtown and near Metro stations in a 2016 zoning rewrite. Many new developments in DC’s core now have zero parking by law. Outside transit areas, reduced requirements apply. Overall, DC’s approach is context-based, but the trend is fewer mandates – e.g. no parking required for small residential buildings anywhere.	DC has no citywide FAR cap (except the federal Height Act which limits building height). The 2016 zoning update allowed moderate density increases (e.g. accessory apartments by right, higher density in some corridors). In 2022, DC relaxed conversion rules to make it easier to turn commercial buildings into housing. The city’s 2021 Housing Element set production goals that may spur further upzoning, but specific rezoning initiatives (beyond Planned Unit Developments) are TBD.	ENACTED: Progressive zoning code in place since 2016 (parking minimums largely scrapped in core areas). Continuing efforts to tweak zoning for affordability and adaptive reuse are underway. No sweeping upzone currently pending, but DC’s ongoing housing crisis could prompt a new round of reforms – a factor to watch in 2025.
Boston, MA	Boston has been gradually moving away from parking minimums. In 2021 the city removed parking requirements for affordable housing developments and for certain transit-area projects. Citywide, Boston still technically has parking guidelines, but Mayor Michelle Wu has directed a shift toward case-by-case flexibility and is exploring abolishing minimums entirely. Several Boston neighborhoods (e.g. Back Bay, Downtown) have no residential parking minimums due to pre-existing policies.	Boston does not use FAR for many zones (it uses height, lot area per unit, etc.), but the city is undergoing a planning initiative to allow more multi-family housing in outlying neighborhoods. There is a proposal to legalize three-family homes on lots currently limited to one (similar to neighboring Cambridge/Somerville reforms). The city’s development review process often grants FAR increases via Planned Development Areas. A comprehensive zoning overhaul for more density is anticipated but not yet realized.	PENDING: Parking reform is more administrative in Boston – the Mayor’s 2022 Carbon Neutral zoning proposals include reducing parking mandates. We expect to see formal policy or legislation by 2025 to eliminate or sharply reduce parking minima citywide, aligning with state climate goals. Upzoning in Boston is piecemeal – watch for updates in specific neighborhood plans (e.g. a potential rezoning of parts of Allston and Dorchester for greater density in 2024).
Sacramento, CA	Removed minimum parking requirements citywide in 2021, becoming one of the first in California to do so (ahead of the state mandate). Sacramento’s rule change was tied to its climate action plan – now developers in Sacramento can build with no new parking if they choose.	In 2021, Sacramento also ended single-family zoning, now allowing duplexes and triplexes on any lot. The city’s general plan encourages mid-rise mixed-use along commercial corridors. Projects near transit can already build more intensely thanks to state density bonuses. With parking mandates gone, Sacramento’s existing height/FAR limits (generally 2–8 stories in most areas) become the primary constraint – the city is reviewing those as it updates its 2040 General Plan.	ENACTED: Parking minima eliminated and zoning opened to multi-unit housing in 2021. Current general plan update (to be finalized 2024) may further raise allowable heights in key growth areas. Investors are increasingly looking at Sacramento as a “light touch” regulatory environment with lower costs than Bay Area cities, thanks to these reforms.
Detroit, MI	Detroit has reduced parking requirements in recent years, particularly downtown (Campus Martius area developments have no parking minimum by special district) and for older buildings being rehabbed. Citywide, parking minimums still exist for most uses, but the 2019 zoning revisions allow more flexibility and waiversdetroitmi.gov. A campaign is underway (Detroiters for Parking Reform) to eliminate parking mandates, and the city is considering it as part of its zoning ordinance overhaul.	Detroit’s 2019 Master Plan and subsequent initiatives aim to encourage infill, but much of Detroit’s zoning remains low-density (a legacy of depopulation). The city did create an Adaptive Reuse ordinance to relax FAR/parking for converting vacant commercial buildings. In 2023, Detroit announced a comprehensive zoning re-assessment – potentially to introduce form-based codes and permit more density in certain neighborhoods. FAR limits in Detroit are generally high in downtown but strict in residential zones (where height is capped to 2–3 stories). These could be loosened to attract development.	WATCH: No broad elimination of parking mandates yet – reform advocates are pushing for it. Given Detroit’s focus on revitalization, we may see targeted zoning changes in 2024, such as removing parking requirements in more districts or along transit corridors (e.g. new QLINE streetcar route). FAR and height relaxations will likely be part of neighborhood redevelopment plans (e.g. Michigan Central Station area), making Detroit a city to keep on the radar.
Raleigh, NC	In June 2021, Raleigh abolished parking minimums citywide for almost all uses, as part of a sweeping set of zoning amendments. This policy covers new developments citywide (a pioneering move in the Southeast). Developers are now only constrained by market demand for parking.	Raleigh also adopted zoning changes to allow more density: it now permits small apartment buildings (up to 4 units) in many formerly single-family areas. The city’s comprehensive plan encourages gentle density and tall buildings downtown. Raleigh’s fast growth led to a 2023 proposal to increase residential density along BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) corridors – including allowing mid-rise mixed-use nodes. FAR is not explicitly capped in most Raleigh zones; height limits and setbacks are the governing factors and are being increased in transit areas.	ENACTED: Parking minimums eliminated in 2021 (the city has been cited as a model by NAIOP for this). ONGOING: BRT corridor rezoning for higher density is in public review and likely to be approved in phases by 2025. Raleigh’s pro-growth policies and low barriers (no parking req., permissive missing middle zoning) make it very attractive for development in coming years.
Portland, OR	Oregon’s statewide rules in 2022 forced cities like Portland to drop parking mandates near transit and for certain uses. Rather than keep a patchwork, Portland went further and eliminated minimum parking requirements citywide in July 2022. Now no new development in Portland is required to provide parking, aligning with its climate goals.	Portland has long been progressive on density. The Residential Infill Project (RIP) adopted in 2020 allows up to 4 units on most residential lots (and up to 6 units if some are affordable) with an FAR-based size limit. Portland’s central city has high FAR allowances (up to 15:1 in core). With parking no longer a limiting factor and RIP in effect, many Portland neighborhoods are seeing a wave of duplex/triplex construction. The city is also implementing “Climate Friendly” zoning rules from the state that may further raise allowed building heights along corridors.	ENACTED: Parking mandates gone (since 2022). Small-scale density upzoning (RIP) active since 2020. NEXT: Portland is updating its 2045 Comprehensive Plan; expect potential designation of more mid-rise mixed-use hubs. Overall, Portland offers a relatively mature example of reform – the focus now is on implementation (developers taking advantage of the new rules) and ensuring infrastructure keeps up with increased density.
Atlanta, GA	Atlanta has taken a phased approach. In 2019 it removed parking minimums in downtown. In 2022, the City Council eliminated parking requirements for developments within a 1/2-mile of the BeltLine, a 22-mile urban trail encircling central Atlanta. That covers a large swath of the city. There was an effort in 2023 to extend this elimination to all transit-rich areas, and although one proposal faced delays, the trend is toward further reductions. Many of Atlanta’s new urban projects are proceeding with far less parking than historically required.	Atlanta’s 2023 zoning overhaul initiative (“ATL Zoning 2.0”) is under development. The aim is to enable more missing-middle housing and transit-oriented development. Current zoning in Atlanta is still somewhat restrictive (large single-family zones), but the city did upzone for ADUs and cottage courts in 2021. The BeltLine overlay allows higher density around trail nodes. Midtown and Buckhead have seen specific upzoning for high-rises through Special Public Interest districts. The expectation is that Atlanta will formalize broader upzoning in the next year or two, especially with expansion of its MARTA transit.	ENACTED: BeltLine parking reform (2022); PENDING: citywide code update. Investors should note Atlanta’s trajectory – already, areas like Midtown have no parking minimums due to transit overlay, and if ATL Zoning 2.0 passes (likely by 2025), it could unleash significant new development capacity across Atlanta’s neighborhoods.
Baltimore, MD	Baltimore eliminated parking minimums in certain areas (e.g. no parking required for downtown residential conversions under its zoning code update). Citywide, many uses still have minimums, but the 2019 TransForm Baltimore code reduced them and added maximums in some districts. The Department of Planning in 2023 indicated it will consider further parking reforms as part of its citywide sustainability goals.	Baltimore’s 2019 zoning rewrite (TransForm) modernized an old code – it created mixed-use zones and slightly higher density allowances in transit-rich areas. For example, multifamily is now allowed on more corridors. However, Baltimore still has relatively low height limits outside downtown (many zones cap at 50 ft or less). The city is focusing on incentivizing development in its Live Near Your Work and Affordable Rowhouse programs rather than sweeping upzoning. Some local advocates are pushing for an upzoning near the proposed Red Line transit route (recently revived).	ENACTED: Moderate reforms in effect (parking requirements lighter than before, but not gone). WATCH: If Baltimore secures funding for major transit expansions, zoning changes may follow. As an investor, look for micro-district rezonings (the city often rezones specific areas for developer proposals). Baltimore’s approach is less uniform, but opportunities exist, especially with adaptive reuse (the city’s relaxed parking for historic buildings is a boon for loft conversions).
Kansas City, MO	Removed all parking minimums citywide in 2021. KCMO’s ordinance made it one of the few large Midwestern cities with zero required parking for new construction (joining Minneapolis and Buffalo at the time). This applies across all uses – a truly market-based approach to parking.	KCMO also adopted a new development code that encourages density in its central core and along streetcar lines. The city is expanding its streetcar, and along that route, zoning now allows high-density mixed-use without special approvals. In neighborhoods, Kansas City has a form-based code option that can increase allowed units. Overall, KCMO doesn’t heavily constrain FAR except in suburban-style zones. With the parking change, any FAR limits that were indirectly caused by parking lot area are gone.	IMPLEMENTED: No parking minimums since Aug 2021 (developers have responded by proposing projects that would have been parking-constrained before). KCMO is an attractive market to watch, as it also offers incentives like a local tax abatement for downtown residential projects. The combination of no parking requirement and available land has led to a mini-boom in multifamily permitting downtown.
St. Paul, MN	Following its twin city, St. Paul eliminated all parking minimums citywide in August 2021. This was part of St. Paul’s effort to support more housing and reduce development costs. Even small businesses no longer have mandated parking minimums.	St. Paul also adopted a new 2040 Comprehensive Plan that allows duplexes and triplexes on former single-family lots (similar to Minneapolis). The city upzoned areas along the new Green Line light rail and other transit routes for transit-oriented development, allowing mid-rise buildings. St. Paul’s approach to FAR is similar to Minneapolis – moderate increases in neighborhood interiors (to allow 2–3 story multi-unit buildings) and significant upzoning around transit stations (up to 6–8 stories in some cases).	IMPLEMENTED: Parking mandates removed 2021; gentle density zoning in effect. St. Paul is now focused on execution (filling vacant lots and adaptive reuse). It’s also dealing with a unique constraint: a 2021 voter-approved rent control ordinance, which has tempered some development enthusiasm. However, the city adjusted that policy in 2023, and with the flexible new zoning, St. Paul still presents opportunities for creative infill projects freed from old requirements.
Buffalo, NY	The trailblazer – Buffalo abolished parking minimums citywide in 2017 when it adopted its Green Code. Developers in Buffalo have no mandated parking (Buffalo’s code instead sets parking maximums in some cases). This marked a paradigm shift and has been credited with catalyzing multiple infill projects on formerly parking-dedicated parcels.	Buffalo’s Green Code also simplified zoning categories and allowed mixed-use and higher densities in many areas. Buffalo is not a high-growth city, but the zoning now permits, for example, accessory dwellings and small apartments in more neighborhoods. The code uses form-based standards and generally does not use FAR limits (it regulates building height and footprint). The removal of parking requirements complements this by removing the last major obstacle to utilizing the full buildable envelope.	IN EFFECT: Since 2017, proving the concept that ending parking mandates is workable. Buffalo has seen new apartments, especially affordable housing, built with fewer parking spaces and more community space. For investors, Buffalo shows how older cities can reinvent themselves with progressive zoning – many underused lots became viable for development once parking lots were not the “highest and best use.” Buffalo’s success arguably paved the way for larger cities to follow.
Memphis, TN	In 2024, Memphis approved an ordinance eliminating parking minimums in the downtown core (the area overseen by the Downtown Memphis Commission). This is a first step, with discussions to possibly extend it citywide. Elsewhere in Memphis, certain overlays (medical district, university district) have reduced parking requirements. The trend is moving toward flexibility as Memphis seeks more investment in urban nodes.	Memphis has traditionally been low-rise, but there is a push to revitalize downtown and Midtown with higher-density development. The Medical District overlay already allows taller buildings near the new transit corridor. Memphis recently updated its Unified Development Code to streamline approvals for mixed-use projects. While not a wholesale upzoning, the city is offering incentives (such as PILOT tax abatements) for high-density projects downtown. If the parking reforms expand citywide, expect Memphis to consider zoning changes in key commercial corridors (possibly allowing multifamily by-right where it was conditional).	ENACTED (Downtown): 2024 removal of downtown parking mandates adopted. Possible Next: Broader zoning refresh in 2025 to align with Memphis 3.0 plan, which calls for concentrating growth in “anchors” throughout the city. Investors focusing on Memphis should watch for further relaxation of both parking and zoning constraints beyond downtown, which would open new opportunities in this growing Sun Belt market.

Table: Key zoning reforms in parking policy and density (FAR) for 30 U.S. cities. “Status” indicates if changes are implemented or upcoming. Sources: Municipal planning documents and news reports (see inline citations above).

Hottest Markets and Most Attractive Reforms for Investors

Not all zoning reforms are created equal – some cities’ changes offer more immediate upside for developers. Based on the above, a few standouts emerge:

• New York City’s “City of Yes” Reforms: By lifting state FAR limits and clearing out parking mandates in much of the city, NYC is primed for a new wave of development. The ability to add density in a supply-constrained, high-demand market like New York presents huge opportunities. Investors should especially watch for rezonings in 2025 that map the new R11 and R12 zones (15+ FAR residential) – these could significantly boost land values in newly upzoned neighborhoods.

• California Upzoned Cities (San Diego, San Jose, Sacramento): These cities combine robust housing demand with very developer-friendly policies. San Diego’s incentives effectively remove FAR limits if you include affordable units , enabling large projects by-right without lengthy approvals. San Jose and Sacramento have eliminated parking requirements and single-family zoning, creating flexible infill conditions. They also lack some of the political resistance seen in San Francisco or LA. Projects in these cities can capitalize on relatively lower land costs and high allowable density – a potent formula for investment yield.

• Seattle and Washington State: With Washington’s new laws, Seattle and other cities (Tacoma, Spokane, etc.) will soon offer near–nationwide-best conditions for by-right development: no parking mandates for most projects and mandatory allowance of multi-unit housing on nearly all lots. Seattle’s strong economy and limited housing supply make it very attractive if zoning opens up further in 2024. Secondary markets in Washington (e.g. Spokane) might also see growth spurts thanks to these state preemptions removing local red tape.

• Austin and Raleigh: These fast-growing Sun Belt cities now pair strong population and job growth with modern, flexible land-use rules (no parking minimums, missing-middle housing by-right). Austin’s complete removal of parking minimums already cuts costs; if it succeeds in implementing broader code changes, it could unlock a lot more housing capacity in a market with immense demand. Raleigh’s quiet abolition of parking requirements and allowance of four-unit homes is attracting developers who previously might have overlooked it – expect increased infill development in Raleigh’s neighborhoods, which should boost land values there in the coming years.

• Midwest Innovators (Minneapolis, Kansas City): Minneapolis proved that abolishing old zoning constraints can go hand-in-hand with housing growth (and it weathered the legal challenge to its 2040 Plan). The Twin Cities region continues to have solid fundamentals and now much lower regulatory barriers. Kansas City, with no parking minimums and an emerging streetcar corridor, is another promising locale – it offers a combination of low entry cost and progressive policy that could yield outsized returns if demand catches up. These “reform-friendly” Midwest cities are drawing interest from impact investors and others looking for the next growth market enabled by zoning change.

On the flip side, some large cities that haven’t yet embraced reform – such as Fort Worth, Jacksonville, or Indianapolis – may be less attractive in the short term because their zoning codes still make projects more costly (requiring extensive parking or limiting density). However, that also means there’s upside potential if and when those cities do modernize their codes. Early acquisition of properties in anticipation of reform can be a savvy move – for instance, forward-looking investors in Dallas who assembled sites before the parking vote are now positioned to capitalize on the new rules.

Conclusion

The wave of zoning reform sweeping through U.S. cities represents a paradigm shift in urban development. By scrapping parking minimums and lifting density restrictions, cities are signaling that they are open to growth and eager for innovative development solutions. For investors and developers, these changes reduce construction costs, increase buildable volume, and shorten approval timelines – all ingredients for improved project viability. They also invite new product types: car-free apartment buildings, mixed-use communities with abundant public space instead of parking lots, and creative reuse of older buildings and small infill sites that were previously impractical.

As always, diligence is key. Stakeholders should monitor local legislative calendars and leverage databases like the Parking Reform Network’s map or Berkeley’s Zoning Reform Tracker to stay updated on which reforms are enacted and when. Engaging early in public processes (e.g. comprehensive plan updates in Seattle, zoning code rewrites in Columbus and Boston) can also give firms a voice in shaping favorable outcomes.

Zoning reforms are not a panacea – challenges such as community pushback, infrastructure needs, and market absorption remain. But in 2025, the trend is clear: America’s biggest cities are retooling their zoning for a new era of higher urban density and less auto-dependence. The “watchlist” above highlights where those changes are happening the fastest. Cities that boldly relax parking and FAR rules are, in effect, creating new frontiers for investment and development. By prioritizing those markets – and remaining agile as policies evolve – developers and investors can align their strategies with the future of urban growth, building more housing and commercial space in places that actively welcome it.

In summary, the elimination of parking minimums and relaxation of FAR limits are unlocking the economic potential of city land across the country. The most forward-thinking cities on the watchlist are offering a simple invitation: “Come build – we’ve cleared the roadblocks.” By heeding that call, and utilizing the new zoning freedoms creatively and responsibly, real estate professionals can not only achieve strong returns but also play a pivotal role in shaping more vibrant, sustainable, and inclusive cities for the 21st century.

Sources: 

Reforms verified via city council reports and urban policy analysis . For ongoing policy status, see the Parking Reform Network’s map of parking mandate changes and Othering & Belonging Institute’s zoning reform database, as well as official city planning websites cited above.

Aerial view of a large parking lot with scattered cars, tree-lined medians, covered cart stations, a